Advent of Europeans

British raj, period of direct British rule over the Indian subcontinent from 1858 until the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947. British almost took a century to expand and consolidate their power to become a trader to ruler with help of diplomatic and military tactics. The English had imposed every possible means of war and administrative policies to consolidate their own rule over entire India.

Reasons For British Supremacy In India:

Superior Arms and Military strategy

• • The British had modern muskets and cannon were well equipped with a speed of firing and range which were better than Indian arms.
  • For that matter, many Indian rulers imported European arms and employed European as military officers, but they never think about military strategy which was made them mere imitators.

Loyalty, Military discipline and regular salary

• • The British were very particular about regular salary and a strict regime of discipline which ensure that officers and the soldiers were loyal.
  • On the other hand, Indian rulers did not have sufficient funds to pay salaries on a regular basis.
  • Some of the rulers were dependent on personal retinues or a rabble of mercenary elements that were not disciplined and loyal.

Procedure for the Selection of officers

• • The British select their officers and soldiers on the basis of reliability and skills not on the basis of heredity, caste and clan.
  • They were very strict on the subject of discipline and objectives of their campaign.
  • On the other hand, Indian rulers select their administrator and military officers on the basis of caste and personal relations that sometimes disregarding the merit and ability.

Quality of leadership

• • Robert Clive, Warren Hastings, Elphinstone, Munro etc. shows their high quality of leadership.
  • The British had also advantage of second line of leadership such as Sir Eyre Coote, Lord Lake, Arthur Wellesley etc. who fight for the cause and glory of their countrymen.
  • Although, Indian side had also brilliant leadership like Haider Ali, Tipu Sultan, Madhu Rao, Sindhia, Jaswant Rao Holkar but lacked by second line of leadership.
  • It is noteworthy that Indian rulers were not united and their enmities were immensely used by British to each other’s.

Strong Financial Backup

• • The British had enough funds to pay its shareholders with good dividends that compel them to finance the English wars in India.
  • Moreover, the British trade added enormous wealth to England that makes their government to help them indirectly or directly through money, material and money.

Lack of National Pride and unity

• • The Indian rulers were not well-versed in a materialistic vision of diplomacy whereas British believe in material advancement. Indian rulers were lacking by unified political nationalism, which was masterly used by British to engage them into fight among themselves.
  • Political faction and lack of unity among the Indian rulers forced the British to aspire from trader to ruler. The British officers started acquiring territory just to promote and protect their trade interest, but political hostility in India compelled them to establish an empire.
  • A number of powerful kingdoms such as Bengal, Avadh, Hyderabad, and Mysore arose and became virtually independent from the Mughal Empire.
  • The weakened Mughal Empire was challenged by Marathas time and again. Marathas captured vast swathes of territory in northern and central India.
  • The remaining illusion of continued domination of Mughal power was shattered by Nadir Shah’s (Shah of Persia) invasion of India in 1739.

The British who came to India for trade eventually became the political master of India. From Battle of Plassey to annexation of Punjab in 1849, the entire Indian sub-continent had been brought under British control. Apart from outright wars they employed methods like Subsidiary Alliance and Doctrine of Lapse to expand and consolidate their empire in India.

Struggle among Europeans

Anglo-French Rivalry:

The Anglo-French struggle lasted in India for nearly 20 years and this ultimately gave way to the establishment of British power in India. In the Carnatic region and Bengal, the Anglo-French rivalry was much evident. In Bengal, their hostility had been contained by the effective intervention of Alivardi Khan. But in the south, the French position was reinforced due to the arrival of a fleet from Mauritius and this resulted in an attack by French on the English position in Madras.

Anglo-French wars in India:

First Carnatic War (1746-1748)

• English navy under Barnett captured some French ships. The French governor of Pondicherry, Dupleix attacked the English in retaliation in 1746 and this led to the beginning of first Carnatic War.
• English appealed to the Nawab of Carnatic for protection.
• Battle of St. Thome was fought between the French and Mahfuz Khan, commander of Anwar-Uddin (the Nawab of Carnatic). In this battle, French emerged as winners.
• Treaty of Aix-La-Chappelle brought an end to the first round of Anglo-French conflicts in India as well. The English possessions in India were returned, while the French got back their North American possessions. (Madras was returned back to the English East India Company in exchange of Louisburg in North America to France.)
• The First Carnatic war also demonstrated the importance of Naval Power.

Second Carnatic War (1749-1754)

• Anglo-French rivalry, continued in India although it had ended in Europe.
• In 1748, Nizam of Hyderabad Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah died, which resulted in a war of succession. Muzaffar Jang, who aspired to become the Nizam of Hyderabad and Chanda Sahib, a candidate for the throne of Arcot was supported by French Governor
• After Victory in Battle of Ambur in 1749, Muzaffar Jung became the Nizam and Chanda Sahib the Nawab of Muhammad Ali, (son of Anwar Uddin) who was supported by British escaped to Tiruchirappalli.
• In 1751 the British commander Robert Clive captured Arcot, i.e. the capital of the Carnatic.
• Chanda Sahib was treacherously murdered by the Raja of Tanjore. Later, Duplex was recalled.
• The war concluded by the Treaty of Pondicherry in 1755. According to this treaty each party was left in possession of the territories that it occupied at the time of the treaty.

Third Carnatic War (1758-1763)

• The outbreak of the Seven Years War (1756-1763) in Europe was the cause of the Third Carnatic War (1758-1763).
• The British General Sir Eyre Coote defeated, Count de Lally (the commander of the French troops) at Wandiwash in 1760. Battle of Wandiwash ended almost a century of conflict over supremacy in India and availed the British East India Company a far superior position in India compared to the other European traders.
• The Seven Years War concluded by the Treaty of Paris in 1763 and this also led to the ending of Third Carnatic War. The French got Pondicherry, Karaikkal, Mahe and Yenam but condition applied was these were to be never fortified.

Reasons for the French failure in India:

• The English East India Company was the wealthier of the two due to its superiority in trade.
• EIC possessed superior naval strength. They could bring in soldiers from Europe and also provide supplies from Bengal. The French did not have any such avenue to replenish resources.
• Its possessions in India had been held longer and were better fortified and more prosperous.
• The French Company was heavily dependent on the French Government.
• Dupleix’s Mistakes: Dupleix did not pay attention towards improving the finances of the company and did not concentrate his efforts only atone place; and sought no support from the French government for executing his plans.
• English had three important ports i.e. Calcutta, Bombay and Madras which provided them superiority in almost every angle be it trade or Naval Power, but French had only one port i.e. Pondicherry.
• The victory at the Battle of Plassey opened up the British to a rich area, namely Bengal.
• The British had many capable and able soldiers like Robert Clive, Stringer Lawrence and Sir Eyre Coote.

With the treaty of Paris, Chandernagar and Pondicherry were returned to France but they were barred from fortifying them or having troops in them. They could only have trading activities. French hopes of building an empire in India were completely dashed. The French agreed to support British client governments making the British a dominant foreign power in India.

Rise of East India Company

Historical importance of Battle of Plassey

The Battle of Plassey was a war fought between the British East India Company and the Nawab of Bengal and his close allies, who were mainly the French troops. The battle was won on June 23, 1757, leading to the consolidation of the British in Bengal and later expanding other territories of India.

The Battle of Plassey was fought at Palashi, on the banks of the Bhagirathi River near Calcutta and Murshidabad which was the public capital of Bengal. It was more of skirmishes than a battle according to some historians, who were part of the seven years’ war fought in India by the British.

Background:

• The Company had a strong presence in India and were located in three main stations; Fort St. George, Fort William, and Bombay Castle.
• The British allied themselves with the Nawabs and princes in exchange for security against rebels and any form of external and internal attack.
• The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle of 1748 stopped the direct hostility between the British and the French powers. The treaty did not last long before the two powers were again involved in indirect hostilities.
• When Alvardi Khan who was the Nawab of Bengal died in April 1756, his son Siraj-Ud-daula succeeded him. The young Nawab immediately laid siege to Calcutta, capturing it and imprisoning several British officials in June 1756.
• Clive concluded that the only way to secure the interest of the Company was to replace Siraj with a friendly Nawab. General Mir Jafar was found as a possible replacement. And a secret agreement was passed to Mir Jafar’s residence.

The beginnings of British political sway over India may be traced back to the battle of Plassey in 1757, when the English East India Company’s forces defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah, the Nawab of Bengal. The significance of battle of Plassey can be studied under the following consequences:

Financial and Political consequences

• The Company was granted undisputed right to free trade in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
• It also received the Zamindari of the 24 Parganas near Calcutta.
• The new Nawab, Mir Jaffar, was dependent on the British for the maintenance of his position in Bengal. An English army of 6000 troops was maintained in Bengal.
• The wealth paid to British immediately after Plassey was a sum of £800,000
• Mir Jaffar regretted the deal that he struck with British later when he was reduced to a puppet leader only.
• Prior to 1757 the English trade in Bengal was largely financed through import of bullion from England; but after that year not only bullion import stopped, but bullion was exported from Bengal to China and other parts of India, which gave a competitive advantage to the English Company over its European rivals.

Position of British after the Battle

• The battle of Plassey was of immense historical importance. It paved way for British Mastery of Bengal and eventually the whole of India.
• It boosted British prestige and at a single stroke raised them to the status of major contender for the Indian Empire. Before the battle, it was only just another European company trading in Bengal. But after Plassey they monopolized trade of Bengal.
• Plassey had brought about a gradual transformation in the character of the Company. In the context of the then politics, military control was synonymous with political body. Thus, the Company played a role of commercial-cum-military-cum- political body.
• The rich revenues of Bengal enabled them to organize a strong army and meet the cost of conquest of the rest of the country.
• Control over Bengal played a decisive role in the Anglo French struggle where British were finally victorious.
• The victory of Plassey enabled the Company with its servants to amass untold wealth at the cost of helpless people of Bengal.
• The conflict at Plassey was also crucial for the East India company’s triumph over its French rivals.

Robert Clive became the Baron of Plassey. Affairs that occurred after the victory at the Battle of Plassey had changed the British East India Company from a trading company to a central power. Thus, the Battle of Plassey marked the beginning of political supremacy of the English East India Company in India.

Battle of Buxar:

The Battles of Plassey (1757) and Buxar (1764) are watershed moments in Modern Indian history as they marked the beginning on the rise of British colonial rule in India. They had far-reaching implications in the consolidation of the British Empire in India. It influenced the politico-economic conditions of Bengal in particular and of India in general.

Background to Buxar

• The Battle of Plassey resulted at the end of the French forces and was a major turning point in modern Indian history that led to the consolidation of the British rule in India.
• The British became the paramount European power in Bengal.

Battle of Buxar: Consequences

• The defeat of the Great Mughal House was very significant and it stamped the British troops as one of the potent forces of the Indian subcontinent.
• The Treaty of Allahabad formally gave the British East India Company the right to exact revenue from the eastern province of Bengal which turned the economic fortune of the company.
  • Robert Clive set up the infamous dual system of administration in Bengal wherein the Company acquired the real power, while the responsibility of administration rested on the Nawab of Bengal.
  • Under the ‘dual’ or double government system, the Company got both the Diwani (revenue) and nizamat (civil administration) functions of Bengal.
  • Thus, virtual power went into the hands of Britishers without any responsibility which created confusions, anarchy and economic loot of India began.
• The British victory at Buxar ensured that there were no significant forces left to challenge its position in the eastern part of the subcontinent.
• The defeat of the Nawab of Awadh created a buffer state which effectively created a wall between the Britishers and the notorious Marathas.
• Through the Residents, the Company officials began interfering in the internal affairs of Indian states.

If the Battle of Plassey had made the English a powerful factor in the politics of Bengal, the victory of Buxar made them a great power of North India and contenders for the supremacy of the whole country. The Buxar battle resulted in strong foothold of British as not only economic power but also political power in India.